“Click” chemistry was introduced as a conceptual framework for functional molecular assembly a decade ago, emphasizing the importance of carbon-heteroatom linkages in joining modular building blocks (see H. C. Kolb, M. G. Finn, K. B. Sharpless, Angew. Chem. 2001, 123, 2056-2075; Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2001, 2040, 2004-2021). Taking inspiration from nature, click reactions were identified as processes that work under operationally simple, oxygen- and water-friendly conditions, and generate products in high yields with minimal requirements for product purification. Such reactions invariably have an unusual combination of strong thermodynamic driving forces and consistent, well-controlled reaction pathways. In tandem, these two features allow the use of widely varying substrates with great reliability.
The azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction (see R. Huisgen, Angew. Chem. 1963, 75, 604-637; Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 1963, 1962, 1565-1598) is especially useful because of the unobtrusive nature of its participating functional groups and the ability to turn on their ligating ability (to different extents, and for different purposes) by Cu(I) catalysts (see (a) C. W. Tornøe, C. Christensen, M. Meldal, J. Org. Chem. 2002, 67, 3057-3062. (b) V. V. Rostovtsev, L. G. Green, V. V. Fokin, K. B. Sharpless, Angew. Chem. 2002, 114, 2708-2711; Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2002, 2741, 2596-2599), installing strain in the alkyne component (see (a) G. Wittig, A. Krebs, Chem. Ber. Red 1961, 94, 3260-3275. (b) N. J. Agard, J. A. Prescher, C. R. Bertozzi, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 15046-15047), or holding them in close spatial proximity (see (a) W. G. Lewis, L. G. Green, F. Grynszpan, Z. Radic, R. P. Carlier, P. Taylor, M. G. Finn, K. B. Sharpless, Angew. Chem. 2002, 114, 1095-1099; Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2002, 1041, 1053-1057. (b) H. D. Agnew, R. D. Rhode, S. W. Millward, A. Nag, W. S. Yeo, J. E. Hein, S. M. Pitram, A. A. Tariq, V. M. Burns, R. J. Krom, V. V. Fokin, K. B. Sharpless, J. R. Heith, Angew. Chem. 2009, 121, 5044-5048; Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2009, 5048, 4944-4948). Thus, this click reaction emerged by finding ways to induce two functional groups to react with each other that otherwise have very little propensity to react with anything, in spite of their highly energetic nature. In contrast, most other click reactions find a useful window of activity by moderating the properties of at least one highly reactive partner.
There is an ongoing need for new click chemistry methods, particularly for the preparation of biologically active materials with useful and uncommon functional groups and pharmacophores. The compounds and methods described herein address these needs.